CLTP 23  THE STORIES BEHIND OUR FAVORITE CHRISTMAS CAROLS         DFO

(Christian Leadership Training Program publications are circulated free of charge on a strictly non-profit basis.)

Material compiled and edited from Christmas, Its Carols, Customs and Legends by Ruth Heller; Christmas Songs and Carols by Henry W. Simon; and The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians by Stanley Sadie

Table of Contents:

         A General History of Christmas Carols    2
         Joy to the World         3
         O Come, All Ye Faithful  5
         How Firm a Foundation    6
         Hark! The Herald Angels Sing     6
         Silent Night     7
         O Holy Night     9
         Away in a Manger         9
         We Three Kings   10
         O Little Town of Bethlehem       10
         The First Noel   12
         Angels from the Realms of Glory  12
         What Child Is This?      13
         God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen     14
         While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks     14
         I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day       15
         There's a Song in the Air        15
         O Come, O Come, Emmanuel         16
         Good Christian Men, Rejoice      16
         Christians, Awake, Salute the Happy Morning      17
         From Heaven Above        17
         How Brightly Beams the Morning Star      18
         Once in Royal David's City       19
         Good King Wenceslas      19
         Glossary for Young Readers       20

A General History of Christmas Carols
         The first carol to be heard on Earth was sung by the angels the night Jesus was born. Ever since, Christians have continued to sing the glad tidings of Jesus' birth.
         The origin of the word "carol" remains a puzzle. Some say it comes from the medieval 1 "circle" or "ring" dance called a "carolare," which was accompanied by singing. Others believe that "carol" may have come from the Greek word for "flute player," referring to the musician who accompanied the singing of the dancing group. Many of the early carols were sung to popular dance tunes. Although carols were frowned upon by the established Church, they were popular with the common people because they expressed the joy of Christmas in music and language that was understood and enjoyed by all. Later, as better stanzas 2 were prepared for the dancers and onlookers to sing, the word carol came to apply more to the song lyrics 3 than the dances. In striking contrast to the slow, monotonous chants of the established Church, carols were exciting, happy and cheerful. They were used and loved by the people far more than the hymns and chants that had received the stamp of approval from the church authorities in Rome, Athens or Jerusalem.
         Since the first carols were handed down from one generation to the next by word of mouth rather than being written down, several versions of the same carol may be found today.
         St. Francis of Assisi is considered the "Father of the Christmas Carol." During ceremonies at his nativity scene in Graecia, Italy, in 1224, St. Francis led his followers in songs of praises to the newborn King. From his jovial 4 singing came about a new idea regarding the holiday season--that of singing "Christmas carols."
         By the 14th century, carols had become more melodic and were being used between the acts of the "mystery plays"--Bible stories or other religious lessons which were taught to the people in skit form at town squares or other locations where people gathered. The carols were first sung as interludes 5 but gradually became integral 6 parts of the Christmas plays. If the audience showed great approval for the carol singing, the singers would march off the stage into the street, singing their carols. This was the beginning of the custom of caroling as we know it today.
         By the 15th century, people were beginning to be freed from old Church teachings which denounced dancing and communal singing of hymns and carols by people other than the trained church choir. The common people began to express their own feelings about Christian music, preferring to sing in their own languages, instead of in Latin. As a result, carols began to develop in the languages of the people, sometimes with choruses in Latin. A gradual substitution of folk songs and dance tunes for the solemn church music took place. The public wanted music that was less severe and more lively. The popularity of bards 7 and wandering minstrels and the growth of ballads also had a strong influence on religious music.
         In 1521, Wynkyn de Word, an English printer's apprentice 8, produced the first printed book of carols. In 1562, the Lord Mayor of London gave Thomas Tyndale a license to print "certain goodly carols to be sung to the glory of God." The carols were widely distributed in England through printed "broadsides" or "broadsheets"--little leaflets containing three or more carols sold for only one penny. Broadsheets were often illustrated with crude woodcuts, showing nativity scenes. They were easy to read, and helped people get acquainted with Christmas music.
         During the 16th century, carols became more and more popular. English carols continued to flourish, and throughout the rest of Europe folk songs were becoming increasingly popular, with a special emphasis on the Christmas season.
         Martin Luther, the famous Reformation 9 leader in Germany, realized the importance of music in people's lives. He loved music, and as a boy sang in the village choir, where he received his musical education. After the establishment of the Lutheran Church, he promoted congregational singing, "encouraging melodies to be sung by the workers in the field, by the wayside, or indeed, anywhere, to help the people be strengthened in the faith."
         During the 17th century, however, the Puritans 10 did away with holiday observance, including caroling. But after the restoration of King Charles II of England, in 1660, caroling came back into the open again, and a new book of carols was published.
         During the 18th century, carols were looked down upon by sophisticated city dwellers as commonplace and rustic 11 In fact, during the boyhood years of Charles Dickens (1812-1870), the author of the story "A Christmas Carol," carols and caroling had almost disappeared.
         Fortunately, certain scholars and pastors began to collect and preserve traditional carols, and it is because of their efforts that these folk songs were not totally lost to generations to come. Schools and choirs in villages and countryside regions sang and helped to keep them alive. By the last half of the 19th century, carols and caroling had again become an important part of Christmas celebrations, both in churches and in homes.
         Now in the 20th century, the singing of Christmas carols and hymns has become an all-around accepted event, and many new Christmas songs have been composed.
         In the following pages you will read how some of our favorite carols came to be written, and a little about the lives and experiences of some of the composers.

Joy to the World
Words: Isaac Watts (1674-1748)
Music: George Frederick Handel (1685-1759), Dr. Lowell Mason (1792-1872)

         Dramatic changes occurred in the 18th century in the way hymns were written and sung, largely due to the ideas and achievements of Isaac Watts. Born in Southampton, England, the son of a church deacon, and eldest of nine children, Isaac wrote his first poem when he was seven. In the seventy years that followed, he wrote some of the most beautiful hymns in the English language.
         Very early in life, Isaac had a passion for hymn singing. His father was imprisoned twice for his religious views, and Isaac's mother used to carry him in her arms as she stood at the prison gate, singing hymns to cheer her husband who was inside.
         At an early age, Isaac learned to play the piano, and, to the delight of his parents, often composed little songs. While still a young boy, Isaac noticed the lack of enthusiasm in congregational singing at their church, and questioned the quality of the songs. Around this time, in the late 1600s, congregational church singing was led by a song leader (called a "clerk") who stood up, faced the audience, and selected a Psalm to be sung. Only Psalms were sung in the church, as it was considered sacrilege to use any other writings from the Bible or otherwise for the lyrics of religious songs. The clerk would say or sing one line of the Psalm, and the people, in turn, would repeat what had been said or sung by the clerk. This method was called "lining-out."
         Isaac's father challenged him to write new hymns for the people to sing. So Isaac, at about the age of fifteen, composed his first hymn, and it received an enthusiastic response. Soon afterward he produced several others that were readily accepted by his father's congregation.
         The people enjoyed singing Watts' hymns. Watts intended his hymns to be sung as complete stanzas, rather than as disconnected lines. He urged congregations to sing Psalms and hymns as they do today, one line immediately after the other. Also, he felt that Christian congregational singing should not be confined to Psalms, but that it should include freely composed hymns on Biblical subjects. In Isaac Watts' day, these were very radical changes!
         Isaac continued with his studies, and in 1702, after his ordination as a minister of the Gospel, he became pastor of a church in London, which he served for the rest of his life.
         Isaac Watts was a brilliant educator (the textbooks he wrote were used for more than 100 years), a notable poet, and the best known of all London ministers in his day. Declining health compelled Watts to resign his pulpit, and he accepted the position from the Lord Mayor of London--Sir Thomas and Lady Abney--of tutoring their children. Sir Thomas made Watts the private chaplain of his household, and Watts was held in great esteem by the Abneys, who considered it an honor to have him in their home.
         Watt's talents and leadership helped raise the standards of both the lyrics and the music of hymns, for which he has been rightly called by some, "the father and liberator of the English hymn." More than four hundred of his hymns are in common use in English-speaking countries today, the two most famous of which are "When I Survey the Wondrous Cross" and "Joy to the World."
         One of Watts' music projects was a volume of hymns based upon the Psalms of David. In preparing this volume, Watts read into Psalm 98 all the joy of the coming of the Messiah. Basing his hymn principally on verses 4, 6, 8 and 9, he wrote his finest Christmas hymn, beginning with the lines:

"Joy to the world,
         The Lord is come,
         Let Earth receive her King!
         Let every heart
         Prepare Him room,
         And Heav'n and nature sing."

         Even 70 years after this milestone publication of Watts', there were still some Christians who believed that God stopped singing when David the Psalmist died, and that for believers to sing anything other than the metrical 12 versions of the Old Testament Psalms was heresy 13 of the worst sort. They despised the works of hymn revolutionists Watts and Charles Wesley, saying they were of "human composition." Yet battles have been fought and victories won by Christians singing these great hymns of faith.
         At first, "Joy to the World" was sung to music composed by Dr. Hodges (and his tune is still used at times). But later Dr. Lowell Mason set it to a musical theme from "The Messiah" by George Frederick Handel, making "Joy to the World" one of the most joyous Christmas hymns.
         (Note: See GT, Vol.2, [pg.1792] for a thumbnail sketch on George Frederick Handel [pg.1792].)

O Come, All Ye Faithful
Words: Anonymous--Latin hymn; discovered by John Francis Wade (1710-1786); translated into English by Rev. Frederick Oakeley (1802-1880)
Music: Samuel Webbe, Sr. (1740-1816)

         The authorship of "O Come, All Ye Faithful," originally a Latin Christmas song of praise entitled, "Adeste Fidelis," has been attributed to many different poets, but remains somewhat of a mystery. Some think it was an old carol connected with dancing around the manger, and that it might have been used by St. Francis of Assisi. Others claim it came from the 13th century and was the work of a Franciscan friar, St. Bonaventura, an associate of St. Francis. Other historians state that "Adeste Fidelis" was originally written by an unknown French poet between the years 1685 and 1690, during the reign of Louis XIV.
         However, it is now generally agreed that Englishman John Francis Wade either came across the stanzas or created them in connection with his music copying and research work in Douay, France, and it first appeared in print in his book, Cantus Diversi, published in 1751.
         The first published appearance of the tune to which "O Come, All Ye Faithful" is now sung, was in a collection by another English music copyist 14, Samuel Webbe, Sr. Because Samuel Webbe played the organ in the chapel of the Portuguese embassy in London and used this superb tune on many occasions, the music to this carol became known as "The Portuguese Hymn," leading some historians to believe that it had its origin in Portugal.
         So the two music copyists, Wade and Webbe, were instrumental in giving Christendom one of her finest Christmas hymns, "Adeste Fidelis."
         Englishman Rev. Frederick Oakeley was so thrilled by the published Latin version of "Adeste Fidelis," that, in 1841, he translated it into his native English, entitling it, "Ye Faithful, Approach Ye."
         Eleven years after the translation, Oakeley was determined to improve upon the hymn. He scrupulously studied the original Latin version in an attempt to translate it into more effective and expressive English, with the opening lines of the first stanza reading,
         "O come, all ye faithful,
         Joyful and triumphant"
         Although more than forty different translations were made of "Adeste Fideles," Oakeley's translation, "O Come, All Ye Faithful," was the one most preferred. This carol has been translated into 120 languages and dialects.

How Firm a Foundation
Words: probably Robert Keene
Music: Samuel Webbe, Sr. (1740-1816)

         "How Firm a Foundation," is sung to the same tune as "O Come, All Ye Faithful." With lyrics believed to have been written by Robert Keene, one of the musical directors of London's churches, "How Firm a Foundation" became immensely popular. This hymn was the personal choice of General Robert E. Lee, commander of the Confederate Army during the U.S. Civil War, who requested that it be sung at his funeral "as an expression of his full trust in the ways of the Heavenly Father."
         Father David liked this hymn very much, and said, "This is a wonderful one for these Last Days when you're going to need the firm foundation of His Word!"

Hark! The Herald Angels Sing
Words: Charles Wesley (1707-1788), Rev. George Whitefield (1714-1770)
Music: Felix Bartholdy Mendelssohn (1809-1847), William H. Cummings (1831-1915)

         Charles Wesley, born in England in 1707, was the brother of John Wesley, the founder of Methodism. When Charles was thirteen years old, a wealthy Irishman offered to adopt him and make him his legal heir. However, Charles refused the offer, choosing to continue his way through school under very trying circumstances.
         Charles followed in the footsteps of his father, and older brother, John, in studying to become a preacher. He wrote his first hymn just three days after his conversion. That hymn was "O For a Thousand Tongues to Sing." Within the following years, he is said to have written about 6,500 hymns and gospel songs on every conceivable subject. It was in 1738, at the age of 31, he wrote "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing."
         By the time Charles Wesley sat down to write this carol, he had already had more than his share of adventure and travel. He had visited the "New World," to the colony of Georgia in America, as secretary to the colony's founder, General Oglethorpe. He was accompanied by his brother John who had plans to convert the Indians. During their trans-Atlantic voyage, the Wesley brothers were greatly influenced by a devout Christian group (the Moravians, see fact box), who helped them discover in God's Word the joy of Salvation by grace. Charles particularly enjoyed listening to these Christians sing hymns while aboard the ship.

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MORAVIAN CHURCH
(pronounced maw RAY vee uhn):
         Originating in Moravia, a region in the former Czechoslovakia, this Protestant denomination was formed after the death of religious reformer John Hus.
         In 1457, some supporters of the martyred Hus organized themselves as the Unitas Fratrum (Unity of Brethren). They stressed the sole authority of the Bible; simplicity in worship; receiving the Lord's Supper in faith without authoritative human explanation; and disciplined Christian living. They suffered great persecution during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). The group revived in Germany in the early 1700s. They wanted to return to the simple life, and first immigrated to America in 1735.

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         A year later, due to ill health, the Wesley brothers returned to England where they banded together as travelling preachers to spread the Gospel throughout the English countryside.
         It was in 1739, while meditating upon the birth of Jesus, that Charles sat down and wrote the first of ten stanzas that contained these words:
         "Hark! How all the welkin rings,
         `Glory to the King of Kings,
         Peace on Earth and mercy mild,
         God and sinners reconciled.'"
         Wesley's ten stanzas underwent a series of alterations and adjustments until Rev. George Whitefield, a co-worker, settled the matter once and for all by omitting the rather awkward word "welkin" (an old English word for "the vault of Heaven"), and rewriting the first two lines to instead read:
         "Hark! The herald angels sing,
         `Glory to the new-born King.'"
         The great composer, Felix Bartholdy Mendelssohn, was born a Jew, but later became a Christian. Mendelssohn became almost as prolific a composer as Charles Wesley was a poet, and had he lived as long as Wesley, he doubtless would have equaled Charles' creative output in musical compositions.
         For an anniversary celebration commemorating Gutenburg's invention of the printing press, Mendelssohn was commissioned to compose suitable music, and so in 1840, he wrote a cantata 15 called "Festival Song."
         Mendelssohn was not completely satisfied with the original words to the melody. He told the printers, "Perhaps words suitable for a marriage ceremony should be put to it, but it will never do to sacred words."
         An English professor of music, William H. Cummings, however, proved Mendelssohn wrong, when, in 1855, fifteen years later, he suddenly discovered that two sections of Mendelssohn's "Festival Song" fit perfectly with Wesley's Christmas poem. He arranged the song for his choir and presented it on Christmas day.
         Since its publication in 1856, it has superseded 16 every other tune to which Wesley's stanzas had formerly been sung, and now is generally recognized as one of the most inspiring tunes the composer was to write during his brief life of thirty-eight years. Although Mendelssohn considered his tune a secular 17 one, God obviously had a better and higher purpose for it!
         (Note: See GT, Vol.2, for thumbnail sketches on Charles and John Wesley [pg.1843], George Whitefield [pg.1844] and Felix Mendelssohn [pg.1810].)

Silent Night
Words: Josef Mohr (1792-1848)
Music: Franz Gruber (1787-1863)

         While the composition of "The Messiah" by Handel and "Christmas Oratorio" 18 by Bach in the 18th century had helped instill the Christmas spirit in many, there was still the need for a simple song that could be sung by everyone. This song was finally found in "Silent Night" whose words were written by an Austrian village priest, Josef Mohr, and its melody by the church organist Franz Gruber.
         Born in Salzburg, Austria, Josef served as a choir boy in his youth, and later became assistant pastor of the parish church in the small town of Oberndorf, in the Austrian Tyrol, not too far from the city of Salzburg,
         Franz Gruber, also born in Austria, was the son of a linen weaver. His father tried to persuade him to follow the same trade, but from the time he was a small child, Franz was fascinated by music. Without his father's knowledge, he would slip out secretly and go to his schoolmaster's home, where he learned to play the organ.
         Once, when the schoolmaster was ill, there would have been no music for the church service had Franz (then twelve years old) not volunteered to take his place. Franz was allowed to do so, and played the entire service from memory! After this, his father let him take regular music lessons. At the age of 20, upon completing his other studies, Franz became a teacher and also a church organist.
         On December 24, 1818, Mohr listened intently as his church organist and friend, Franz Gruber, told him that the pipe organ in the church would not be available for Midnight Mass on Christmas Eve, since it was damaged almost beyond repair. Unfortunately, mice had eaten the organ bellows 19, and because of the deep winter snows, it would not be possible for a repairman to arrive to restore the organ in time for the service.
         Father Mohr, not knowing what to do without the traditional organ music for the service, then received a messenger asking him to go out to bless the newborn babe of a peasant mother. Meanwhile, Gruber went back to the organ loft in a growing mood of despair and disappointment. He paced the floor, trying to come up with a solution to the problem that seemed to grow more critical with every passing hour.
         Perhaps seeing the child in the mother's arms reminded the priest of Mary and Baby Jesus, for as Father Mohr walked home through the snow on that starlit sky, he thought of that first Christmas when the angels sang to the wondering shepherds. Once back home, he thought over the events, and felt moved to put his feelings into words. Soon, without too much conscious effort on his part, the words began to flow from his pen. As fast as he scratched them down on a piece of paper, other words and lines came crowding in to take their place. Before he knew it, he had written several simple stanzas.
         However, he had no music for it, and he wanted the composition sung at the Christmas service. He hurried to see his friend, Franz, to ask him to furnish the melody for his words. Handing his friend a copy of his new stanzas, he said, "Franz, write some music for my new poem and we will sing it at the Midnight Mass, organ or no organ!" Mohr suggested that the song be composed and played on the guitar, but Gruber protested that he was an organist not a guitarist, and certainly not a composer. Mohr brushed his objections aside by explaining, "Surely you know three chords on the guitar." Gruber nodded as the pastor continued, "Then why not write the music as simple as possible using those three chords, arrange it, and tonight while you play, we will sing the new carol!"
         Gruber proceeded to do what Mohr requested, and within a hour or so, had completed the tune. He took it to the priest, who was delighted with it. At the Christmas service in 1818, the two men, singing the tenor and bass, formed a quartet with two women singers, and, to the accompaniment of Father Mohr's Italian guitar, introduced a new carol to the world.
         After having finally received Gruber's letter, asking him to come and fix the organ, an organ builder and repairman from the valley of Zillertal, Karl Mauracher arrived. When the instrument was in good playing order, Franz Gruber sat down to try the instrument. Father Mohr happened to be in the church that afternoon and insisted that Gruber play the music he had composed for the new Christmas carol. Upon hearing it, Mauracher was delighted, immediately fell in love with the tune and begged Gruber to give him a manuscript copy of the new song, asking if he might take it back with him to the Zillertal Valley and share it with the singers and musicians there who are always on the lookout for a new song.
         Mauracher took a copy of the carol back to his home town. The villagers were thrilled and called it the "Song from Heaven." Ten years later, Mauracher heard four children with exceptionally good voices, Caroline, Josef, Andreas and Amalie Strasser. He taught the carol to them, and they enjoyed singing it.
         As their parents were skillful glove-makers, the children went with them each year to the great fair at Leipzig, where Mr. and Mrs. Strasser offered their gloves for sale. While there, the children often sang in front of their parents' booth and on the streets to advertise their wares 20. To their great surprise, the General Director of Music of the Kingdom of Saxony, Mr. Pohlenz (who had heard them sing one day), asked them to attend a concert.
         At the close of the regular program Mr. Pohlenz invited them to come to the platform and sing before the King and Queen of Saxony. Although the young Strassers were nervous, they arose, went to the front of the hall, and sang several selections, including their favorite "Song from Heaven." Their singing created a sensation, and they were invited to the palace on Christmas Eve, 1832, to sing the carol again before the royal family.
         "Silent Night" was first published in 1840 in Leipzig, as a Tyrolean Christmas carol, accompanied by the statement, "Hymn of Unknown Origin--Author and Composer Unknown."
         The King of Prussia, Frederick Wilhelm IV, heard "Silent Night" for the first time in 1854, when it was sung by the entire choir of the Imperial Church in Berlin. He declared that this song should be given first place at all Christmas concerts in his country; he also instructed his court musicians to try to find out the names of the author and composer.
         That year, these men got in touch with the monks of St. Peter's monastery in Salzburg, and inquired whether they had any information about the origin of the song. By a fortunate turn of events, a choir boy there, the son of Franz Gruber, heard of the investigation, and he soon convinced the monks that it was his father's music. Years later, in 1897, a tablet honoring Franz Gruber was placed on the school where he had taught.
         "Silent Night" is said to have a wider use than any other Christmas carol. It has been translated into many different languages, and sung in some of the most distant and isolated countries. Thus it has spread from a small Austrian village throughout the entire world.

O Holy Night
Words and Music: Adolphe Adam (1803-1856)

         The inspiring hymn, "Cantique de Nol" ("O Holy Night"), was written by a distinguished French composer, Adolphe Adam. His father was a pianist, yet he did not want his son to become a musician. At first, Adolphe taught himself music, and, later, his father allowed him to follow this profession.
         Adolphe Adam's life ambition was to be a composer of grand opera. He did not achieve success in this, but he did compose many stage works and ballets, the most frequently performed of these being the ballet, "Giselle."
         "O Holy Night" received repeated attacks from ecclesiastical 21 authorities on music, saying that the song "lacks of good musical taste, and has a total absence of the spirit of religion." However, a century after its composition, "O Holy Night" remains one of the most popular and stirring Christmas songs ever written.

Away in a Manger
Words: Anonymous
Music: German melody

         In 1224, St. Francis of Assisi was wrestling with a problem. The Gospel message had become so intellectual that it was cold and dogmatic. "It must be simplified so that it might appeal to the heart of the common people," he resolved. Then an idea came to him. "Why not dramatize the Christmas story? The common folk will then be able to better understand the meaning of Christmas."
         So he had a manger and all the trappings of a stable placed in his church at Graecia, Italy. On Christmas Eve, the members of his parish came to the church, and there, before their very eyes, were Joseph and Mary, and the Child in the manger. The people rejoiced! Christmas had never seemed so real to them.
         Since that time, the manger has become the subject of many Christmas carols and lullabies. One of the best known of these is "Away in a Manger." This song is generally referred to as "Luther's Cradle Hymn." In 1887, the tune appeared in print in North America, with the subheading, "Composed by Martin Luther for his children, and still sung by German mothers to their little ones." The authorship of the lyrics has never been verified, and the source of the tune is still unknown. Some say it could have been composed by a member of a German Lutheran colony from Pennsylvania.

We Three Kings
Words and Music: John Henry Hopkins (1820-1891)

         Of the several Christmas carols written by the American Rev. John Henry Hopkins Jr., "We Three Kings" is his best one. Although composed in the 19th century, its style and mixture of modes 22 have led a number of hymnologists 23 to believe it is of medieval origin and consider Hopkins as the "arranger."
         Even though the Bible speaks of "wise men from the East" who journeyed from the East to worship the newborn King (see Matthew 2:1,7,16), because it doesn't specifically say that these travelers were kings, some people were hesitant to receive "We Three Kings" as a genuine Christmas carol when it was composed in 1857 and first printed in 1859. But this point of controversy didn't prevent Hopkins from writing his carol about the visit of the wise men, whether they were actually kings, astrologers or philosophers.
         While the Gospel of Matthew makes no reference to the names, the number, or even the royalty of the kings, the details have come down to us through legend and tradition. The three names traditionally given to the kings--Caspar, Melchior and Balthasar, who read and knew the movements of the stars (see Matthew 2:2)--were chosen somewhere along the way, we don't know by whom or where. And why three wise men? This number was selected, no doubt, because of the three special gifts: gold, frankincense and myrrh, as each man brought one precious gift to lay at the feet of Jesus.

O Little Town of Bethlehem
Words: Phillips Brooks (1835-1893)
Music: Lewis Redner (1831-1908)

         Although not a professional poet, Phillips Brooks could write a hymn, a carol or a poem with almost effortless ease. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, he came from a Christian family which excelled both academically and musically. Even as a child, Phillips was always singing, and by the time he was 16 years old, he knew 200 songs by heart!
         As a young man, he was a miserable failure in his first position as a Latin professor, and it was only when he surrendered himself wholly and completely to God, that he found his calling in life.
         At the age of 24, Brooks was ordained a pastor, and took charge of a church in the city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
         Although he remained a bachelor all his life, Brooks was especially fond of children. It is said that he kept a supply of toys, dolls and other objects of interest to children in his study so that youngsters would be encouraged to drop in and chat with him. A familiar sight was this important man sitting on the floor of his study, having a fun time with a group of children.
         Brooks was especially interested in Sunday School music. He loved to hear children sing, and so it's not surprising that he wrote his best song for them, the story of which is as follows:
         In 1865, Brooks made a trip to Palestine. The experience found the 33-year-old Brooks with his travelling party in Bethlehem during Christmas week. The trip made an unforgettable impression upon him, but the song he was eventually to write as a result of his travels was almost three years away.
         Three years later as Brooks prepared his Christmas program and services, he reflected upon his visit to the Holy Land three years earlier, the impressions and inspiration of which seemed to be permanently stamped upon his heart. The still vivid memory moved the pastor-poet to express his feelings and sentiments in a lovely poem, written especially with the children of his parish 24 in mind. He captured the mystery of that first Christmas in a carol which began with these lines:
         "O little town of Bethlehem,
         How still we see thee lie;
         Above thy deep and dreamless sleep
         The silent stars go by.
         Yet in thy dark streets shineth
         The Everlasting Light;
         The hopes and fears of all the years
         Are met in thee tonight."
         --And in the last stanza, Brooks prayed that the Holy Child of Bethlehem would be born anew in each heart.
         The following day when Mr. Lewis Redner, the church organist and also the Sunday School superintendent, came into the minister's study, Brooks handed him a piece of paper on which he had written a copy of this new poem.
         "Lewis," he said to his friend and co-worker, "why not write a new tune for my poem?"
         Redner smiled as he glanced over the five stanzas and replied, "I'll do what I can, Phillips." Brooks urged Redner to do what he could as quickly as possible, since the Christmas services were only days away!
         Although he had ample time in which to compose a suitable tune, Redner delayed until it was almost too late. When Brooks questioned him about the tune, Redner gave the pastor the age-old answer of frustrated composers, "No inspiration!"
         Upon retiring, the night before Brooks had planned for a group of children to introduce the song, Redner had still not come up with a single line of music. During the night, Redner suddenly awakened from his sleep, the new tune ringing in his ears! He jotted the melody down as rapidly as he could and then went back to bed for a few hours of contented and undisturbed sleep. Very early the next morning, he harmonized his original melody, declaring that it "was a gift from Heaven." A group of six Sunday School teachers and thirty-six children sang it from newly printed leaflets on December 27, 1868. Brooks, sitting in the back of the room, was thrilled to hear the children sing his song. The carol was an immediate favorite with everyone--especially the children.
         Brooks passed away on January 23, 1893, in his 58th year. He was loved by all who came in contact with him, and his sudden death was greatly mourned by everyone who knew him. The story is told of a five-year-old girl who was upset because she hadn't seen her preacher friend for several days. When told by her mother that Dr. Bishop Phillips Brooks had gone to Heaven, the child exclaimed, "Oh, Mama, how happy the angels will be!"

The First Noel
Words and Music: Anonymous--17th century traditional English carol

         Have you ever wondered where the word "noel" comes from? Some scholars claim "noel" is of French origin, meaning "a shout of joy" at the birth of Jesus. Others say that it stems from the medieval Latin word "natalis," meaning "birth," which explains why some people refer to Christmas as "His natal day." There is yet another Latin word that some claim as the accurate source of "noel," the word "novella," which means "news," which relates the idea that the news of Jesus' birth causes the shouts of joy associated with Christmas time.
         However, other scholars say that the original is of English spelling, "nowell," rather than the French "nol." This could be another example of how the English language has changed down through the centuries.
         For example, the English people took the parting phrase with which they bade one another "Fare thee well," and made it into one word, "Farewell." They also took the phrase "God be with you," and shortened the four words into one, the word "goodbye."
         In the same way, if the word "nowell" was first a phrase instead of a word, perhaps it was something like "Now all is well!" The English forefathers greeted each other every Christmas morning with the cry "Now all is well," since God had regarded those who had walked in darkness by giving them a great Light--Jesus! Soon, "Now all is well" became merely "Now well," and was later further shortened to "Nowell."
         If so, when the unknown poet who wrote "The First Noel" sat down to compose his story poem about the birth of Jesus sometime during the 17th century, perhaps he decided that the message of the angels to the shepherds, "Fear not, for behold I bring you good tidings of great joy which shall be to all people" (Luke 2:10), was a message to remind us that "now all is well," for Christ is born in Bethlehem.
         "The First Noel" has been a popular carol for almost three centuries, and is about the oldest familiar carol in the English language. It is noted for its simplicity and sincerity. After having been handed down by word of mouth for many generations, "The First Noel" was finally copied down with the stanzas properly polished, the tune correctly harmonized, and printed for the first time in a collection of Christmas carols published in 1833.

Angels from the Realms of Glory
Words: James Montgomery (1771-1854)
Music: Henry T. Smart (1813-1879)

         James Montgomery was born in England, where his parents raised him in the Christian atmosphere of a happy home. When James was six years old, his family sailed to the West Indies as Moravian missionaries. A couple of years later, both of James' parents went to be with the Lord. Through the care of relatives and other church members, James returned to England, and began writing poetry at ten years old. James was a determined and dedicated boy, and his background in hymn singing, both at home and at school, proved to be a blessing in his life.
         As a young teen, James packed up his few belongings, tucked his precious manuscripts under his arm, and headed towards London with high hopes of finding a publisher for his book of original poems. In Sheffield, England, he spent several months as a baker's apprentice, and although he failed to find a publisher for his writings, he sold one of his poems to a kind-hearted man, who helped him financially until he was able to find a steady job.
         At age 23, Montgomery bought and became the editor of a local radical newspaper called The Iris, and embarked upon what he thought would be a glorious career as a newspaperman. However, after writing a politically inflammatory 25 poem in regards to the French Revolution that had broken out in France, the judge sentenced Montgomery to three months in the local jail, in addition to a fine of twenty Pounds. So off to prison Montgomery went. But his friends rallied to his support, raised his fine, and bailed 26 him out. Two years later, Montgomery found himself in hot water again for printing a story in The Iris which the judge considered "harmful to the public interest." So the judge, this time, doubled the jail sentence to six months and increased the fine.
         Montgomery devoted this second imprisonment to writing a book, and when he stepped out a free man, six months later, he was surprised to discover that he had become somewhat of a celebrity. His book had become a best-seller, and the circulation of The Iris was larger than ever before in its history! In fact, so famous had Montgomery become, that he was tempted to write the local judge a letter of thanks for having granted him the "privilege" of the second prison term!
         Using his growing influence, not only as a bold and gifted writer, but also as a dedicated Christian, Montgomery began to devote his time and talents to creative writing, and championing 27 many varied and unpopular causes, such as foreign missions, bettering the conditions of the chimney sweeps, and encouraging the widespread distribution and use of the Bible.
         Montgomery began to include some of his original poems in the columns of "The Iris." Encouraged by the public's response to his writings, he began to use more of his energy and ability in the writing of hymns.
         Montgomery was a faithful student of the Bible. One day while reading the familiar story of the birth of Jesus, becoming inspired by the age-old account of the Savior's birth, the visit of the shepherds, as well as the angels' song, Montgomery wrote:
         "Angels from the realms of glory,
         Wing your flight o'er all the Earth;
         Ye who sang Creation's story,
         Now proclaim Messiah's birth.
         Come and worship, come and worship,
         Worship Christ the new-born King."
         The completed poem was published in the December 24, 1816 issue of The Iris.
         The stirring tune which this hymn is now sung to worldwide, was written by the Englishman and prominent blind musician-composer, Henry T. Smart, who wrote the tunes of many popular hymns.
         Smart produced more than 400 hymns, most of which were written in the early 1700s when he was serving as a pastor in Liverpool. He is considered among the most popular hymn writers of his time.

What Child Is This?
Words: William C. Dix
Music: Anonymous--16th century English melody; arranged by Sir John Stainer

         Here is another example of how some carol tunes were often taken from popular folk tunes.
         During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, there was a song entitled, "My Lady Greensleaves." Shakespeare often referred to the song as being one of the most popular of his day. The words to "My Lady Greensleaves" are no longer in use today, but the melody is still popular in the form of the carol "What Child Is This?"
         The words to this carol were written during the reign of Queen Victoria, by William C. Dix. He was the manager of an insurance company in England, and wrote many beautiful hymns.

God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen
Words: Anonymous--16th century traditional English carol
Music: Sir John Stainer

         One of the most popular English carols is "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen." It's interesting to notice that the comma after "Merry" is often misplaced, causing it to read "God Rest Ye, Merry Gentlemen." Yet the original punctuation helps to indicate that the song is for all gentlemen--to one and all--whether merry or not, with the hope and blessing that God will cause them to be merry.
         The origin of the carol is still a mystery; some believe it is from Cornwall, England. There are several different versions, some of which go back to the 16th century. Even though written in a minor key, this song expresses Christmas joy, and is happy and triumphant. With music written by Sir John Stainer, "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen" was usually the first carol heard on the streets of London at Christmas time.

While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks
Words: Nahum Tate (1652-1715)
Music: George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)

         Considered to be one of the best poets of his time, Nahum Tate was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1652, the son of an Irish clergyman. Even though Nahum Tate was Poet Laureate 28 of England during the reigns of William and Mary, Queen Anne, and George I, his loose living as a drunkard and a spendthrift eventually led to his downfall, and he died in 1715 at a debtor's refuge in Southwark, London. His literary works, which were mainly stage plays, are now forgotten, except for his inspiring carol, "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks by Night," which was set to a melody written by George F. Handel, and ranks as one of our most popular Christmas carols.
         Handel, one of the most outstanding composers of all time, was born in Halle, Germany. After 1713 he made his home in England, and became a naturalized English citizen in 1727. He is best known for his famous oratorio, "The Messiah," composed in 1741, which was completed in just 24 days.
         (Note: See "In the Hall of the Mountain King! Part 2," LOG Pt.21 for more on the life of George Frederick Handel.)

I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day
Words: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882)
Music: John Baptiste Calkin (1827-1905)

         This carol was written on December 25, 1863, when the American Civil War (1861-1865) was at its height. The famous poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was saddened by the horrors of this conflict, for "hate seemed overstrong at the moment." His son, who was serving as lieutenant in the Union Army at the time, had been wounded.
         When Longfellow heard the Christmas bells chiming out, he came to the realization, from the depths of his despair, that "God is not dead, nor doth He sleep!" He believed that God is powerful enough to overcome the world's strife, and to bring peace and good will to Earth. And in ending each stanza, the poet stresses this idea with the phrase, "Of peace on Earth, good will to men."
         (Note: See GT, Vol.2, for thumbnail sketch on Henry Wadsworth Longfellow [pg.1814].)

There's a Song in the Air
Words: Josiah Gilbert Holland (1819-1881)
Music: Karl Pomeroy Harrington (1861-1953)

         Both the author of the words, and the composer of the music were in New England* when they played their particular roles in this lovely song's interesting history. (*New England is a region that consists of six states in the northeastern U.S.: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.)
         Josiah Gilbert Holland, a one-time high school drop-out because of poor health, tried his hand successively at photography and calligraphy 29 before enrolling in a medical school. After earning his medical degree and practicing his profession for a few years, he forsook medicine to become the owner and editor of a newspaper, and remained a writer, poet, novelist and editor until his death. It was in a book of his poems that was published in 1872 that the four stanzas of "There's a Song in the Air" appeared in print for the first time.
         Holland's Christmas poem became very popular, and when a new hymnal was being prepared for publication in 1905, three noted composers submitted melodies for "There's a Song in the Air." Since the publishers considered all three tunes to be excellent, the three were printed in the new hymnal, but the melody composed by Harrington became the most preferred and memorable.
         Professor Karl Harrington, a university Latin teacher and part-time musician, came from a very musical and creative family. His father had been one of the musical editors of a hymnal, and quite early in life young Karl had tried his hand at composing hymn tunes on the small organ which stood in the living room of the Harrington home. Many years later, when Karl had grown to be a man, his father decided it was time to purchase a new and larger parlor organ for their home. When the new instrument was delivered, he gave the smaller organ to Karl, who promptly moved it to his vacation retreat. While spending some time there in July 1904, on a sudden impulse, he sat at the keyboard of the old organ, and then and there proceeded to compose his lovely melodic tune for Holland's stirring stanzas.

O Come, O Come, Emmanuel
Words: Latin origin from the 12th century; first translated into English by John Mason Neale (1818-1866)
Music: Anonymous--13th century

         The roots of this carol can be found in the medieval Roman Church of the 12th century and possibly even earlier. Each of the carol's stanzas begins with a short statement called an "antiphon." Antiphons were used at the beginning of Vespers 30 during the Advent season,31 and were greetings sung to the Savior--each antiphon using one of the many titles given to Jesus in the Scriptures.
         This carol's modal 32 melody is an example of the earliest form of singing in the Church. During the 19th century there were a number of ministers and scholars, such as John M. Neale (born in London), who developed an interest in rediscovering and translating into English many of the ancient Greek, Latin and German hymns. Neale himself wrote more than sixty original hymns.
         Although the original carol contained many more antiphons, most hymn books that have been printed contain only five of the original antiphons, which are as follows. In verse 1: "Emmanuel." ("Therefore the Lord Himself shall give you a sign; Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a Son, and shall call His Name Immanuel."--Isaiah 7:14.) In verse 2: "Rod of Jesse." ("And there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a Branch shall grow out of his roots."--Isaiah 11:1.) In verse 3: "Dayspring"--meaning "sunrising." ("Through the tender mercy of our God; whereby the Dayspring from on High hath visited us."--Luke 1:78.) In verse 4: "Key of David." ("And the key of the house of David will I lay upon His shoulder."--Isaiah 22:22a.) And in verse 5: "Lord of Might"--which addresses God Who revealed Himself on Mount Sinai in the awesome accompaniment of lightning and thunder. ("There were thick clouds upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud."--Exodus 19:16.)
         (Note: See GT, Vol.2, for thumbnail sketch on John Mason Neale [pg.1814].)

Good Christian Men, Rejoice
Words: Anonymous; first translated into English about 1540 by John Wedderburn; translated into "Good Christian Men, Rejoice" by John Mason Neale (1818-1866)
Music: Anonymous--14th century

         "Good Christian Men, Rejoice" is another example of an anonymous carol that has lasted through the centuries. Its words were originally written by a Latin poet of the Middle Ages, and the music was composed by an unknown 14th century German composer.
         The original Latin title of this carol is "In Dulci Jubilo," meaning "in sweet shouting" or "jubilation." It was originally a "macaronic" hymn, meaning it had a mixture of languages in it, containing both Latin and German.
         Legend has it that Henry Suso, a German Dominican priest, may have been the author of this carol. The story goes that he was visited by angels who invited him to dance and sing this song with them. When he awoke, he wrote down the Latin-German words and tune.
         During the 16th century, this carol was already so old it was referred to as "an ancient song for Christmas Eve," and was widely sung both in Sweden and Germany. In 1601, a German, Bartholomew Gesius, arranged the melody as we now sing it. The tune has the characteristics of a rhythmic folk song, and this, no doubt, accounts for its popularity and survival.

Christians, Awake, Salute the Happy Morning
Words: John Byrom (1692-1763)
Music: John Wainwright (1723-1768)

         Dr. John Byrom, an English physician who became famous for inventing a system of shorthand 33, was an occasional contributor to the publication entitled Spectator under the pen name 34 "John Shadow." He was especially gifted in writing poems that reflected his kindly and happy nature.
         For the boys at the hospital where Dr. Byrom worked, he wrote a number of hymns, and once declared that he would rather do that than be a Poet Laureate.
         One day in 1745, as Christmas was approaching, John Byrom announced to his daughter, Dolly, that he was making a Christmas present for her. When Christmas morning arrived, he handed to Dolly an envelope with her name on it. When she opened it, she found in it a poem for Christmas morning, entitled, "Christmas Day for Dolly," written by her father, and dedicated to her.
         His friend, the organist John Wainwright, set the Christmas poem to music, and Christmas morning the following year, he serenaded the Byrom family with it, having brought along "the singing men and boys" (carolers) for the occasion. So it is recorded in Byrom's diary.
         Little did either of them dream on that morning that those joyous lines would live and be sung for centuries, to help gladden other Christmas mornings for generations yet to come.

From Heaven Above
Words and Music: Martin Luther (1483-1546)

         Early Christmas Eve, in 1534, in order to help lighten the many household duties of his wife, Martin Luther sat beside the cradle of his little son, Paul, to watch over him. Luther had been studying the Christmas story in the Bible, in preparation for the upcoming Christmas services. As he looked down on little Paul, Luther thought to himself, "How like the Child Jesus lying in the manger." Filled with inspiration, he took up his lute and began to hum and sing. In his melody making, Luther began to sing the tune of a popular folk song of that time, entitled, "Aus Fremden Landen Komm Ich Her" ("From Foreign Lands I Come Here"). Using this song's tune as his pattern, he continued to sing to his little son about the Christmas story, adding stanza after stanza, until there was a total of fifteen. A new Christmas song had been composed: "From Heaven Above to Earth I Come"--a carol which Johann Sebastian Bach was to later use in his famous "Christmas Oratorio."
         By nature, Luther was deeply moved by the Christmas spirit, and he especially loved to join in with the children in celebrating Christmas. Special festivities were held for the children at Luther's home on Christmas Eve. At these annual festivities, "From Heaven Above" was one of the children's favorite songs. In singing the song, it was Luther's custom to have a student, dressed as an angel, sing the first seven verses. The children would then joyfully respond by singing the remaining verses, and on the last verse, all the children would leap about in a gleeful dance.
         Luther was a great lover of music, and urged that all people learn to enjoy it. As a boy, he had sung carols in the streets of Magdeburg, Germany. During his lifetime, he wrote, revised, and translated many hymns.
         About music (obviously referring to Godly music), Luther said, "If any man is to be allowed to preach and teach to God's people, he must realize and employ the power of sacred songs. If any man despises music, for him I have no liking; for music is a gift and given by the grace of God, not an invention of men. Thus it drives out the Devil and makes people cheerful.--For the Devil, the originator of sorrowful anxieties and restless troubles, flees before the sound of music almost as much as before the Word of God!"
         (Note: See GT, Vol.2, for thumbnail sketch on Martin Luther [pg.1806].)

How Brightly Beams the Morning Star
Words and music: Philipp Nicolai

         In 1597, a pestilence raged throughout Westphalia (a region of western Germany). Thousands of people died and few families escaped without the loss of one or more of their loved ones. Out of this tragedy sprang one of the greatest hymns, "How Brightly Beams the Morning Star."
         Philipp Nicolai, author and composer of the hymn, was a pastor in the city of Unna. The pestilence had already taken its toll on several of his relatives. Early one morning, as he sat in his study, weary and downcast, he lifted up his heart to God, and found comfort in his sorrow. He forgot his cares and was seized with the inspiration to write this song.
         Nicolai first published his hymn in 1599. It was used for almost all religious occasions, especially weddings, funerals, and Communion. As early as 1610, Nicolai's hymn appeared in the hymnal of Sweden, where it was used during the Christmas season.
         Johann Sebastian Bach, the famous composer, apparently had a high regard for the tune, for he used it as a basic theme in one of his greatest organ preludes,35 and included it in one of his cantatas.

Once in Royal David's City
Words: Cecil Frances Alexander (1818-1895)
Music: Henry J. Gauntlett (1805-1876)

         Mrs. Frances Alexander, born in Ireland, is said to have been a quiet and reserved person, who wrote her poems for certain special occasions. She had no idea that they would ever appear in print and bring her recognition. Her eight books of hymns, including such favorites like There Is a Green Hill Far Away and Jesus Calls Us O'er the Tumult, contain about 400 songs.
         Her Christmas poem, "Once in Royal David's City," was first published in 1848 in Hymns for Little Children. According to one source, the song was written by Mrs. Alexander for her godchildren 36, because they "told her that their Bible lessons were getting dreary." She wrote this nativity poem to help inspire their Bible study time.
         In the carol, Mrs. Alexander tells the Christmas story simply, so all ages of children may understand it. She also wanted the children to realize what Jesus' birth meant personally to them, and in the third stanza told them:
         "For He is our childhood's pattern,
         Day by day like us He grew;
         He was little, weak and helpless,
         Tears and smiles, like us, He knew;
         And He feeleth for our sadness,
         And He shareth in our gladness."
         The melody was written by the Englishman Henry J. Gauntlett, an organist, organ designer, and composer, who wrote over ten thousand hymn tunes.

Good King Wenceslas
Words: John Mason Neale (1818-1866)
Music: 16th century Swedish-German hymn

         This song is based on a story about Prince-Duke Wenceslas of Bohemia (907-929), martyr and patron saint of Czechoslovakia, who ruled in Bohemia from 923 to 929. He was raised a Christian by his grandmother. At 16 years old, Wenceslas took over the reins of government from his mother, who was a pagan. He was very devout and was said to have had the power to perform miracles. He encouraged the work of German missionary priests in the Christianization of Bohemia, and showed great liberality to the poor, especially at Christmas and St. Stephen's Day, December 26th (called "Boxing Day" in some countries). His zeal in spreading Christianity, however, antagonized his non-Christian opponents. Heathen enemies conspired against Wenceslas, and in 929, his younger brother, Boleslav, murdered him. Wenceslas was regarded as Bohemia's patron saint almost immediately after he was assassinated.

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BOHEMIA
(pronounced boh HEE mee uh):
         A region in the former western Czechoslovakia. It covers 20,374 square miles (52,768 square kilometers). It is a saucer-shaped plateau ringed by hills and mountains. Most Bohemians belong to a Slavic group called Czechs.

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         His virtues are sung in the Christmas carol "Good King Wenceslas." The carol is an interesting dialogue between the king and his page; it relates how the ruler carries food, drink and firewood through the dark, snowy night to a peasant's house, and ends with this admonition:
         "Therefore, Christian men, be sure,
         Wealth and rank possessing,
         Ye who now will bless the poor,
         Shall yourselves find blessing."
         "Good King Wenceslas" is a carol which really is about "St. Stephen's Day." It was a favorite carol of all who went out to collect alms.

Glossary for Young Readers
(The meaning given is for the use of the word in the story and does not cover every meaning of the word.)

         1 medieval: having to do with Europe's Middle Ages (476 A.D. to 1453)
         2 stanzas: a group of lines of poetry, usually four or more
         3 lyrics: the words for a song
         4 jovial: good-hearted and full of fun; jolly, merry
         5 interludes: a piece of music played between the parts of a song, church service or drama
         6 integral: essential, necessary to make something complete
         7 bards: a poet and singer of long ago, known especially in the Middle Ages
         8 apprentice: a person learning a trade or art
         9 Reformation: the great religious movement in Europe in the 1500s that aimed at reform in the Roman Catholic Church but led to the establishment of Protestant churches
         10 Puritans: a person who wanted simpler forms of worship and stricter morals than others did in the Protestant Church during the 1500s and 1600s
         11 rustic: belonging to the country, rural
         12 metrical: composed in poetic meter
         13 heresy: holding a belief that is different from the accepted belief
         14 copyist: a person who makes written copies
         15 cantata: a musical composition consisting of a story or play which is sung by a chorus or soloists, but not acted
         16 superseded: become greater than
         17 secular: connected with the world and its affairs, not religious
         18 oratorio: a musical composition, usually based on a religious theme, for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra. It is dramatic in character, but performed without action, costumes or scenery.
         19 bellows: an instrument for producing a strong current of air, used for fires or sounding an organ or accordion
         20 wares: articles for sale
         21 ecclesiastical: of or having to do with the church
         22 modes: the various musical scales used in ancient Greek and medieval music
         23 hymnologist: someone who studies hymns, their history, classification and use
         24 parish: a congregation of a particular church
         25 inflammatory: intending to excite or arouse strong feelings
         26 bailed: when money is given to the court authorities to set a person free from arrest until he is to appear for trial
         27 championing: fighting for; speaking in behalf of; defending; supporting
         28 Poet Laureate: a poet appointed by the head of state to write poems for national celebrations or events; a poet considered to be the best of hiscountry or region; a poet noted for his excellence
         29 calligraphy: handwriting done as a decorative art form
         30 Vespers: a church service during the late afternoon or early evening
         31 Advent season: the period of Christmas observance during the four Sundays before Christmas
         32 modal: medieval style
         33 shorthand: a method of rapid writing that uses symbols or abbreviations instead of words
         34 pen name: a name used by a writer instead of his real name
         35 preludes: a piece of music that introduces another piece
         36 godchildren: children for whom one would assume responsibility, should anything happen to the parents

         (Definitions condensed from the World Book, Funk & Wagnall's Dictionary and Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary.)

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